The private and social gathering together of women in nineteenth and twentieth-century America subverted public and political definitions of female activity, even as it appeared utterly conventional to an unfamiliar eye. Clubs formed by affinities of race, ethnicity, social class, and by interest, education, and religion. Women socialized informally in parlors, talking about poetry, art, drama, music, history, and even science, coming together to understand their spiritual inheritance and cultural life. Clubs developed from the seemingly casual perusal of literature and from conversations women had in their homes and debates they had in public and private schools. By the 1880s the United States had produced a first generation of young women who attended college, many of them studying at female seminaries and some at prestigious colleges, including women’s institutions such as Smith College and coeducational colleges such as Oberlin. Even formally educated women, however, were expected to marry, raise children, and secure the domestic tranquility of their families.