Irish Feminisms, 1810-1930

This introduction takes particular account of the need to provide information that is relevant to the core documents of feminism in Volume I. Since these documents constitute a basis and background for all the material in the set, this introduction may be considered also as a preface to Volumes II–V. On that account, it is necessarily more detailed than the subsequent individual introductions.

In this volume, the speeches, magazine articles, pamphlets, newspaper reports, a novel and a short story, all connect with aspects of land and labour. The sum of their parts depicts the harshness of the times for women workers both in town and in country. The determined efforts of mid-nineteenth-century activists, and their varying degrees of success with establishing lace schools, occurred in the wake of the hardship and disaster of the famine years and the failure of the Young Ireland Rising, and just before prevailing conditions would lead to the Fenian Rising in 1867 and then on to the land war. The horror of the famine in particular would long resonate right through the fabric of Irish society and its impact is evident in the demands of the Land League for land security – their cry is for fair rent, fixity of tenure and freedom to sell. Obviously, the crises impacted on women; perhaps more unexpectedly, they had considerable consequences for the freedom of women and for pursuit of women’s rights. Formation of the Ladies’ Land League was a dramatic illustration of the urgency of the situation at one juncture; to draw women into politico-social turmoil and action could only be done in exceptional circumstances as, in the climate of separate spheres, such a course could not otherwise have received even minimal acceptance from male politicians or from society at large. The combination of political purpose, humanitarian concern and a degree of public support provided an invaluable opportunity for League members to display their considerable abilities. Anna Parnell’s caustic account of the movement’s birth and demise portrays the women’s clear analyses, sharp learning curves and decisive interventions. Even the circumstances of the League’s dissolution contributed to progress in advancing the cause of women; the experience and political skills acquired were subsequently put to good use in suffrage and nationalist activity. In celebrating the bravery of Anna’s sister, Fanny, the poetry dedicated to her memory and mourning her passing may be taken as a recognition of all Land League women, as tribute to the legion of female co-workers who laboured alongside the Parnell sisters in the early 1880s.

‘Éire abú’ was the sentiment if not the catch cry of a majority of those whose writings and drawings appear in this volume. To affix a question mark to the aspiration is to interrogate the possible outcome of all their ambition and work; it further conveys the insecurity of the times. The period from the aftermath of the Fenian Rising in 1867 to the year of the Great Crash in 1929 encompasses many wars all over the globe, the scramble for Africa, the Russian Revolution and a host of technological advances. The era also saw increased levels of education and a huge expansion in print media in the Western world, both of which contributed to an appreciable augmentation of cultural nationalism in Ireland, to a more obvious presence of women in all spheres, and to a visible and relatively consistent pursuit of women’s suffrage. Inevitably, many very dramatic changes came in Ireland with the 1916 Rising, the War of Independence, and the establishment of the Free State. Change and its associated societal insecurities brought, at once, a new confidence and fresh doubts to the situation and the aims of women. Declaring equality of rights and opportunity, and committing to suffrage for ‘all her men and women’, the 1916 Proclamation of the Irish Republic as a sovereign, independent state was a very radical document, but would the New Ireland deliver? The documents in this volume show a remarkable resilience and resourcefulness on the part of feminists; difficulties are not denied but are confronted and assailed assertively. In a swirling maelstrom of conflicting forces and attitudes, strong and loud voices were heard; journals dedicated to the advancement of women and/or suffrage allowed an airing of opinions in an unprecedented and forceful manner. It is in the pages of such publications as Bean na hÉireann, The Irish Citizen, The Workers’ Republic, and L’Irlande Libre that many ideas are promulgated and debated; both famous and less well-known authors wrote robust and persuasive articles on law, war, nation and suffrage. In addition, poetry, novel, drama and short story were exploited to present viewpoints, and some of the most effective and memorable messages were conveyed visually, whether in emblem or cartoon, design or sketch. Apparent in all the contributions – some of which are particularly fearless and out-spoken – is a growing confidence in the strength of their causes, a considerable involvement in society through different media, and recognition of the powerful opposition to be faced. If the progress of women was not even, the force behind it radiated power and promised much. On its side, notwithstanding their different conceptions of Éire, were the famous names of the Haslams, the Sheehy-Skeffingtons, Maud Gonne and Countess Markievicz; they were joined by others who merit a higher profile than they have been granted to date. In the variety of documents presented here, there is at least one new chapter for the books, and much light shed on a multi-faceted history.

This volume considers several aspects of lived female experience as depicted by Irish women and men of the nineteenth and early twentieth century. In novel, play and short story, and from artist’s sketchbook to language lessons and newspaper articles, the diverse sources reveal dynamics of acceptance, frustration and collusion with societal norms of the era. Suffrage, economic and social concerns, and especially violence against women, are never far from the subject or the subtext; respectable institutional façades are pulled back to expose the double standards of religious teaching and moral practice; prejudice and snobbery are prevalent. A woman’s praise of a fellow writer provides a perfect example of Victorian expectations and conventions; Unionist and Nationalist women are equally active in their respective campaigns; one of the new Poor Law Guardians reveals the inner workings of the previously male-dominated boards. The latitude taken by writers does not increase exponentially over time, but when authors take greater liberties than custom would approve, their insights are particularly valuable. The distance between the worlds of George Egerton and Pádraic Ó Conaire is elided in their insights into human psychology, and in their common concern for the status of woman, particularly in marriage. The tones vary from assuaging or bland to searingly bitter, the personalities and styles are equally disparate. With total assurance, the coping skills of the modern woman are made evident in the understated and matter-of-fact exchanges of an Irish-language conversation lesson. The real world emerges off the pages and the total picture, with its very disparate aspects, is all too sadly credible.

Literary expression is a vitally important source and conduit for all explorations of feminism. The very medium can be the message, whether it is the mere fact of daring to publish, or the choice of a genre that has previously been the cherished and exclusive preserve of those who deny equality to women writers. Within the genre and the work, feminism is discernible in the author’s expressed opinions, in the other voices of the text, in the tone, and also in the portrayal of fictional characters through actions, words and development. The result is a multiplicity of shades and shapes of feminism, with some unexpected diversity and similarity between them. This volume provides ample evidence of that variety. Many of the authors – including Maud Gonne McBride, Lady Gregory, Thomas MacDonagh and Lady Wilde – have achieved prominence in more than one genre, and also in different spheres. Thus, added interest is attached to the consciously literary treatments of their subject matter, and speculation is prompted on their intended audience or readership. In several cases, the engagement with feminist issues is not conducted overtly or conceptually but the literary treatment nonetheless allows discernment of societal attitudes and authorial position. Fixed ideas on gender roles are openly queried by Hanna Sheehy-Skeffington as she addresses sex bias in language, but such beliefs are more obliquely approached in the poetry of James Stephens; nationalism combines with feminism in Lady Gregory’s drama; a tribute from Seumas MacManus records the multi-faceted feminist endeavours of Ethna Carbery/Anna Johnston. Whether through soulful poetry or satiric verse, novel, short story or literary criticism, the depictions of woman reveal much about their authors and society.